An overview of the current concerns regarding police officer mental health and interventions in place to address these
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.70386/ijcpe.v1i1.15Keywords:
Mental Health, Wellbeing, organisational justiceAbstract
The mental health and wellbeing of police officers in the UK is currently a keenly discussed topic, with evidence suggesting that an increasing number of officers are succumbing to ailments such as stress, depression, anxiety, and PTSD among others. It also remains perhaps a hidden epidemic, with various cultural stigmas existing that dissuade officers from revealing the true natire and extent of any mental health concerns, for fear of repurcussions or becoming ostracised. This paper presents an overview of the current concerns and causes surrounding adverse police officer mental health, before moving on to explore current and potential means to help prevent, overcome, and support them within the police workforce. It concludes that organisational stressors are just as important a contributory factor as traumatic experiences and that there is evidence that stigma surrounding seeking help and support is gradually being eroded, but there is still more to be done.
Downloads
References
• Andrews, T. (2023). Perceptions of student officers of the police constable degree apprenticeship. The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles, 97(4), 634-657
• Andrews, T. (2025) ‘Education or indoctrination? An exploration of the resistance towards making policing a degree-level profession’ The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles 98(1) pp. 234-248.
• Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice hall.
• Becker, H S (1963) Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance New York: Free Press
• Bell, S. and Eski, Y. (2016) ‘Break a leg—it’s all in the mind’: police officers’ attitudes towards colleagues with mental health issues’ Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice 10(2), pp.95-101.
• Brand, A (2024) ‘Police officers and social workers among the most stressful jobs in the UK’ HR Review [Online] Available at: https://hrreview.co.uk/hr-news/wellbeing-news/police-officers-and-social-workers-among-the-most-stressful-jobs-in-the-uk/376960 [Accessed May 2025]
• Brucia, E., Cordova, M.J. and Ruzek, J.I., (2019) ‘Critical incident interventions: Crisis response and debriefing’. In Police Science: Breakthroughs in Research and Practice (pp. 159-182). IGI Global.
• Brunetto, Y. et al. (2022) ‘Managing emotional labour: the importance of organisational support for managing police officers in England and Italy’ The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 34(4), pp. 832-854.
• Cantor, C. H., Tyman, R., & Slater, P. J. (1995) ‘A historical survey of police suicide in Queensland, Australia, 1843–1992’ Suicide and Life‐Threatening Behavior 25(4), 499-507.
• Cartwright, A., & Roach, J. (2021) ‘The wellbeing of UK police: a study of recorded absences from work of UK police employees due to psychological illness and stress using freedom of information act data’ Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 15(2), 1326-1338.
• Charman, S & Bennett, S (2023) 'Voluntary resignations from the police service: the impact of organisational and occupational stressors on organisational commitment' Policing & Society 32(2) pp. 159 - 178
• Civilotti, C., Di Fini, G. and Maran, D.A. (2021) ‘Trauma and coping strategies in police officers: a quantitative-qualitative pilot study’. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(3), p. 982.
• Clay, L. D. M. (2001). Understanding the human physiological and mental response to critical incidents. University of Arkansas Criminal Justice Institute.
• COEH CfOEH (2000). Occupational physicians reporting activity Quarterly report Manchester: University of Manchester
• Demou, E., Hale, H., & Hunt, K. (2020) ‘Understanding the mental health and wellbeing needs of police officers and staff in Scotland’ Police Practice and research, 702-716.
• Edwards, Ann-Marie & Kotera, Yasuhiro (2020) ‘Mental Health in the UK Police Force: a Qualitative Investigation into the Stigma with Mental Illness’ International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction 19 pp. 1116 – 1134
• English, M (2024) ‘What are the UK’s most stressful jobs?’ GoCompare.com [Online] Available at: https://www.gocompare.com/life-insurance/most-stressful-jobs/ [Accessed May 2025]
• Evans, R., Pistrang, N. and Billings, J. (2013) ‘Police officers’ experiences of supportive and unsupportive social interactions following traumatic incidents’ European Journal of psychotraumatology 4(1), p.19696.
• Foley, J., Hassett, A. and Williams, E., 2022. ‘Getting on with the job’: A systematised literature review of secondary trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in policing within the United Kingdom (UK)’ The Police Journal, 95(1), pp.224-252.
• Frapsauce, A., Gilibert, D., Samatan, A. and Sauvezon, C. (2022) ‘Meaning of Work, Perceived Recognition and Social Support in PTSD Among Police Officers’. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 37(3), pp.499-511
• Hartley, T. A., Sarkisian, K., Violanti, J. M., Andrew, M. E., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2013) ‘PTSD symptoms among police officers: associations with frequency, recency, and types of traumatic events’ International journal of emergency mental health 15(4), 241.
• Hernandez , M., & Velazquez, E. (2019) ‘Effects of police officer exposure to traumatic experiences and recognizing the stigma associated with police officer mental health: A state-of-the-art review’ Policing: An International Journal 42(4), pp. 711-724
• HMICFRS (Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Fire and Rescue Services) (2024) State of Policing: The Annual Assessment of Policing in England and Wales 2023 London: The Stationery Office
• Hochschild A, (1983) The Managed Heart Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
• Home Office (2025) Police workforce, England and Wales: 31 March 2024 [Online] Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/police-workforce-england-and-wales-31-march-2024/police-workforce-england-and-wales-31-march-2024 [Accessed 3rd April 2025]
• Houdmont, J., & Randall, R. (2016) ‘Working hours and common mental disorders in English police officers’ Occupational medicine 66(9), 713-718.
• Jackman, P., Henderson, H., Clay, G., & Coussens, A. (2020) ‘The relationship between psychological wellbeing, social support, and personality in an English police force’ International Journal of Police Science & Management, 22(2) pp. 183-93.
• Janssens, K. M., van der Velden, P. G., Taris, R., & van Veldhoven, M. J. (2021) ‘Resilience among police officers: a critical systematic review of used concepts, measures, and predictive values of resilience’ Journal of police and criminal psychology, 36(1), 24-40.
• Karaca, G., Tanova, C., & Gokmenoglu, K (2023) ‘How do shared values improve eudaimonic workplace well-being: role of perceived justice and emotional exhaustion among nurses’ Journal of health organization and management, 37(2), 158-176.
• Karaffa, K.M. and Tochkov, K. (2013), “Attitudes toward seeking mental health treatment among law enforcement officers” Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice 9(2) pp. 75-99
• Mason, G (2017) ‘Ensuring police wellbeing is Oscar Kilo’ Policing Insight [Online] Available at: https://policinginsight.com/feature/opinion/ensuring-police-wellbeing-oscar-kilo/ [Accessed May 2025]
• Matud, M. P. (2004) ‘Gender differences in stress and coping styles’ Personality and individual differences, 37(7), 1401-1415.
• Mauritz, M. W., Goossens, P. J., Draijer, N., & Van Achterberg, T. (2013) ‘Prevalence of interpersonal trauma exposure and trauma-related disorders in severe mental illness’. European journal of psychotraumatology, 4(1), 19985.
• Mind (2019). Mental Health in the Emergency Services: Our 2019 Survey Results – Police Service [Online] Available at: https://www.mind.org.uk/media-a/4849/2019-survey-police-service-summary.pdf [Accessed 21st January 2025].
• Mitchell, A. M., Sakraida, T. J., & Kameg, K. (2003). ‘Critical incident stress debriefing: implications for best practice’. Disaster management & response 1(2), 46–51
• Newell, C. J., Ricciardelli, R., Czarnuch, S. M., & Martin, K. (2022) ‘Police staff and mental health: barriers and recommendations for improving help-seeking’. Police practice and research, 23(1), 111-124.
• Oliver, H., Thomas, O., Neil, R., Moll, T., & Copeland, R. J. (2022). ‘Stress and psychological wellbeing in British police force officers and staff’ Current Psychology, 29291–29304.
• Office for National Statistics (2022) Sickness absence in the UK labour market: 2022 [Online] Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/labourproductivity/articles/sicknessabsenceinthelabourmarket/2022 [Accessed 4th April 2025].
• Oscar Kilo The National Police Wellbeing Service (2024) Oscar Kilo. [Online] Available at: https://www.oscarkilo.org.uk/ [Accessed 16th December 2024]
• Parkes, R., Graham-Kevan, N., & Bryce, J. (2019) ‘You don’t see the world through the same eyes any more: The impact of sexual offending work on police staff’ The Police Journal, 92(4), 316-338.
• Pasciak, A.R. and Kelley, T.M. (2013), “Conformity to traditional gender norms by male police officers exposed to trauma: implications for critical incident stress debriefing” Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice 9(2) pp. 137-156.
• Petrie, K., Crawford, J., LaMontagne, A.D., Milner, A., Dean, J., Veness, B.G., Christensen, H. and Harvey, S.B., (2020) ‘Working hours, common mental disorder and suicidal ideation among junior doctors in Australia: a cross-sectional survey’ BMJ open, 10(1), p.e033525
• Peñalba, V., McGuire, H. & Leite, J.R. (2008) ‘Psychosocial interventions for prevention of psychological disorders in law enforcement officers’. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3).
• Phythian, R., Birdsall, N., Kirby, S., Cooper, E., Posner, Z. and Boulton, L., (2022) ‘Developments in UK police wellbeing: A review of blue light wellbeing frameworks’ The Police Journal, 95(1), pp. 24-49.
• Police Federation (2021) Capture Data On Traumatic Incidents [Online] Available at: https://www.polfed.org/avonsom/news/news-articles/capture-data-on-traumatic-incidents/ [Accessed 4th April 2025]
• Police federation (2023) Mental health crisis in policing: Whose responsibility is it? [Online] Available at: https://www.polfed.org/news/blogs/2023/mental-health-crisis-in-policing-whose-responsibility-is-it/ [Accessed 3rd April 2025]
• Police Federation (2024) Record 14,508 officers signed off with poor mental health in past year [Online] Available at: https://www.polfed.org/news/latest-news/2024/record-14-508-officers-signed-off-with-poor-mental-health-in-past-year/ [Accessed 3rd April 2025]
• Porter, C.N. and Gavin, P. (2024). ‘Constant pressures from all angles’: Understanding the mental health of UK police officers’ The Police Journal Theory Practice and Principles 0032258X241280217
• Purba, A & Demou, E (2019) ‘The relationship between organisational stressors and mental wellbeing within police officers: a systematic review’. BMC Public Health 19, 1286
• Quinton, P., Myhill, A., Bradford, B., Fildes, A., & Porter, G. (2015). Fair cop 2: Organisational justice, behaviour and ethical policing. An Interpretive Evidence Commentary College of Policing: London
• Regehr, C., Carey, M. G., Wagner, S., Alden, L. E., Buys, N., Corneil, W., ... & Fleischmann, M. (2021). ‘A systematic review of mental health symptoms in police officers following extreme traumatic exposures’ Police practice and research, 22(1), 225-239.
• Russell, G. and Lightman, S. (2019). ‘The human stress response’ Nature Reviews Endocrinology 15(9), pp.525–534
• Scharrer, E. (2001) ‘Tough guys: The portrayal of hypermasculinity and aggression in televised police dramas’ Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 45(4), 615-634.
• Seth, A.K. and Bayne, T. (2022) ‘Theories of consciousness’ Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 23(7) pp.439-452.
• Stevelink, S.A., Opie, E., Pernet, D., Gao, H., Elliott, P., Wessely, S., Fear, N.T., Hotopf, M. and Greenberg, N., (2020) ‘Probable PTSD, depression and anxiety in 40,299 UK police officers and staff: Prevalence, risk factors and associations with blood pressure’ PLoS One 15(11), p.e0240902.
• Tuckey, M. R. and Scott, J. E. (2013) ‘Group critical incident stress debriefing with emergency services personnel: a randomized controlled trial’ Anxiety, Stress, & Coping 27(1), pp. 38–54.
• Turner, T. and Jenkins, M. (2018) ‘“together in work, but alone at Heart”: Insider perspectives on the mental health of British police officers’, Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 13(2), pp. 147–156.
• Tyson, J., & Charman, S. (2023) ‘Leaving the table: Organisational (in) justice and the relationship with police officer retention’ Criminology & Criminal Justice, 17488958231191648.
• Uhl-Bien, M., 2006. 'Relational Leadership Theory: Exploring the social processes of leadership and organizing'. The Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), pp. 654 - 676.
• Walker, M. (1997) ‘Conceptual and methodological issues in the investigation of occupational stress. A case study of police officers deployed on body recovery at the site of the Lockerbie air crash’ Policing and Society: An International Journal, 7(1), 1-17.
• Walsh, M., Taylor, M. and Hastings, V. (2013) Burnout and post-traumatic stress disorder in the police: Educating officers with the Stilwell TRiM approach’ Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice, 7(2), pp.167-177.
• Wessely, S., Rose, S., & Bisson, J. (2000). ‘Brief psychological interventions ("debriefing") for trauma-related symptoms and the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder’ The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, (2), CD000560-CD000560.
• Westmarland, L. (2011) ‘Police cultures’. In Newburn, T (ed.) Handbook of Policing (pp. 253 – 280). Abingdon: Willan
• Whybrow, D., Jones, N. and Greenberg, N. (2015) ‘Promoting organizational well-being: a comprehensive review of Trauma Risk Management’ Occupational Medicine 65(4), pp.331-336.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 International Journal of Criminology and Policing Education

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

